The populations surveyed were those of the provinces of. [81][91], The People's Republic of China, proclaimed in 1949 under the leadership of Mao Zedong, established a policy of state atheism. In recent years a community has also developed in Beijing through the work of the Chabad-Lubavitch movement. According to scholarly opinion, "the great majority of China's population of 1.4 billion" takes part in Chinese cosmological religion, its rituals and festivals of the lunar calendar, without belonging to any institutional teaching. In the Han period, the philosophical concern was especially the crucial role of the human being on earth, completing the cosmological trinity of Heaven-Earth-humanity (天地人 Tiāndìrén). Chinese Catholics resisted the new government's move towards state control and independence from the Vatican. The Zhuang religion is intertwined with Taoism. [220] Unlike the Abrahamic traditions in which living beings are created by God out of nothing, in Chinese religions all living beings descend from beings that existed before. [223] It is a meaning system of social solidarity and identity, which provides the fabric of Chinese society, uniting all its levels from the lineages to the village or city communities, to the state and the national economy. [264] They were very active in the early republican period, and often identified as "heretical doctrines" (宗教異端 zōngjiào yìduān). Theravada Buddhism spread from Myanmar to present day Xishuangbanna, Dehong, Simao, Lincang, and Baoshan, all in Yunnan, during the 6th and 7th century. [349] "Moism" refers to the dimension led by mógōng (摩公), who are vernacular ritual specialists able to transcribe and read texts written in Zhuang characters and lead the worship of Buluotuo and of the goddess Muliujia. [281], In contemporary China, the Confucian revival has developed into various interwoven directions: the proliferation of Confucian schools or academies (shuyuan 书院 or 孔学堂 Kǒngxuétáng, "Confucian learning halls"),[280] the resurgence of Confucian rites (chuántǒng lǐyí 传统礼仪),[280] and the birth of new forms of Confucian activity on the popular level, such as the Confucian communities (shèqū rúxué 社区儒学). The scholar Xinzhong Yao argues that the term "Chinese religion", therefore, does not imply that there is only one religious system, but that the "different ways of believing and practicing... are rooted in and can be defined by culturally common themes and features", and that "different religious streams and strands have formed a culturally unitary single tradition" in which basic concepts and practices are related. According to the scholar Stephan Feuchtwang, rites are conceived as "what makes the invisible visible", making possible for humans to cultivate the underlying order of nature. [368]:33 Yanbian Korean churches have been a matter of controversy for the Chinese government because of their links to South Korean churches. Confucianism originated during the Spring and Autumn period and developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE),[275] to match the developments in Buddhism and Taoism which were dominant among the populace. This hierarchy proceeds up to the gods of the cosmos, the Earth and Heaven itself. Churches with their high steeples and foreigners' infrastructures, factories and mines were viewed as disrupting feng shui ("wind–water" cosmic balance) and caused "tremendous offense" to the Chinese. [21], John C. Didier and David Pankenier relate the shapes of both the ancient Chinese characters for Di and Tian to the patterns of stars in the northern skies, either drawn, in Didier's theory by connecting the constellations bracketing the north celestial pole as a square,[22] or in Pankenier's theory by connecting some of the stars which form the constellations of the Big Dipper and broader Ursa Major, and Ursa Minor (Little Dipper). Western scholarship generally accepted this understanding. [224], Taoism has been defined by scholar and Taoist initiate Kristofer Schipper as a doctrinal and liturgical framework for the development of indigenous religions. Like the wu, the fashi identify with their deity, but while the wu embody wild forces, vernacular ritual masters represent order like the Taoists. A 巫 wū (shaman) of the Supreme Peace named Zhang Xiu was known to have led a group of followers from Shu into the uprising of the year 184. [351] Zhuang shamanism entails the practices of mediums who provide direct communication between the material and the spiritual worlds; these shamans are known as momoed if female and gemoed if male. China blickt auf eine rund fünftausendjährige Geschichte zurück. Along the southeastern coast, Taoism reportedly dominates the ritual activity of popular religion, both in registered and unregistered forms (Zhengyi Taoism and unrecognised fashi orders). Um Kommentare zu schreiben, stelle bitte sicher, dass JavaScript und Cookies aktiviert sind, und lade Sie die Seite neu. Old Martial Art Strengthens Social Cohesion in Chinese Rural Areas", "Heaven, Earth, Sovereign, Ancestors, Masters: Some Remarks on the Politico-Religious in China Today", "Cultural Dynamics in China: Today and in 2020", "Antagonistic Discourses on Shamanic Folklore in Modern China", "Shamanistic Studies in China: A Preliminary Survey of the Last Decade", "The growth of a Taiwanese Buddhist association in China: Soft power and institutional learning", "Research Review of Bai Esoteric Buddhist Azhali Religion Since the 20th Century", "Even as International Pressure Mounts, China Ramps up Religious Persecution", "China cracks down on religion, crosses burned at Christian churches, Xi Jinping photos installed", "Hong Kong Christians Draw New Scrutiny From Mainland", "Vatican and China sign agreement on bishop appointments", "Vatican announces deal with China on bishop appointments", "Lord Krishna's popularity rising in Communist China", "Manichaean and (Nestorian) Christian Remains in Zayton (Quanzhou, South China)", "Map: These are the world's least religious countries", 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195188356.001.0001, "Carrying the Confucian Torch to the Masses: The Challenge of Structuring the Confucian Revival in the People's Republic of China", "Understanding Di and Tian: Deity and Heaven from Shang to Tang Dynasties", "Conceptualizations of "Popular Religion" in Recent Research in the People's Republic of China", "Confucius and the Mediums: Is There a "Popular Confucianism"? When the Uyghur Khaganate was defeated by the Kyrgyz in 840, Manichaeism's fortune vanished as anti-foreign sentiment arose among the Chinese. "The belief in Tian (Heaven) as the great ancestral spirit differed from the Judeo-Christian, and later Islamic belief in a creator God". Since the 1990s, Taoism has been well-developed in the area. The traditions of the "Nine Fields" (九野 Jiǔyě) and of the Yijing flourished. According to the most recent demographic analyses, an average 80% of the population of China, approximately 1 billion people, practises cults of gods and ancestors or belongs to folk religious movements. Das moderne China gleicht einer überdimensionalen Schule: Die gesamte Bevölkerung ist von einem kaum zu stillenden Wissensdurst beherrscht .Das war jedoch nicht immer so; vor 1949 war Bildung nur unter dem Adel verbreitet,80% konnten weder lesen noch schreiben. In the culmination of a series of atheistic and anti-religious campaigns already underway since the late 19th century, the Cultural Revolution against old habits, ideas, customs and culture, lasting from 1966 to 1976, destroyed or forced them underground. of positive theology) in character, while professional Taoism as "kenotic" and "apophatic" (i.e. During the same period, Chan Buddhism grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism. [366], A significant number of members of churches unregistered with the government, and of their pastors, belong to the Koreans of China. Scholar Valerie Hansen argues that the City God is not a homegrown cult, but has its prototype in the Indian Vaiśravaṇa as a guardian deity. The government formally recognizes five religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Catholicism, Protestantism, and Islam. [115] In order to address this terminological confusion, some Chinese intellectuals have proposed the legal recognition and management of the indigenous religion by the state and to adopt the label "Chinese native (or indigenous) religion" (民俗宗教 mínsú zōngjiào) or "Chinese ethnic religion" (民族宗教 mínzú zōngjiào),[116] or other names. The former festival is to worship the God of Heaven, while the latter is dedicated to the god of mountains. In its interior, the temple enshrines a statue of Genghis Khan (at the center) and four of his men on each side (the total making nine, a symbolic number in Mongolian culture), there is an altar where offerings to the godly men are made, and three white suldes made with white horse hair. According to the Chinese General Social Survey of 2012,[166] about 2.2% of the total population of China (around 30 million people) claims membership in the folk religious sects, which have likely maintained their historical dominance in central-northern and northeastern China.}} Since 1978, the Constitution of the People's Republic of China guarantees "freedom of religion". Besides the waning Zhou ritual system, what may be defined as "wild" (野 yě) traditions, or traditions "outside of the official system", developed as attempts to access the will of Tian. The state protects normal religious activities. Statistiken mit konkreten Zahlen sind wegen des fließenden Charakters der Religion in China schwer zu erheben. The vast majority of Buddhists in China, counted in the hundreds of millions, are Chinese Buddhists, while Tibetan Buddhists are in the number of the tens of millions. The broad and sustained offensive on human rights that started after President Xi Jinping took power five years ago showed no sign of abating in 2017. [99][100] The government founded the Confucius Institute in 2004 to promote Chinese culture. [281] Kang modeled his ideal "Confucian Church" after European national Christian churches, as a hierarchic and centralised institution, closely bound to the state, with local church branches devoted to the worship of Confucius and the spread of his teachings. [200] In the Confucian text "On Rectification" (Zheng lun) of the Xunzi, the God of Heaven is discussed as an active power setting in motion creation. Citizens of the People's Republic of China enjoy freedom of religious belief. [77], The principle of reciprocity between the human and the divine, which was strengthened during the Tang dynasty, led to changes in the pantheon that reflected changes in the society. [229] Hao (2017) defined lineage temples as nodes of economic and political power which work through the principle of crowdfunding (zhongchou):[230], Chinese popular or folk religion, otherwise simply known as "Chinese religion", is the "background" religious tradition of the Chinese, whose practices and beliefs are shared by both the elites and the common people. Shamans revealed texts of Taoism from early times down to at least the 20th century.[293]. Like many contemporaries, Confucius saw ritual practices as efficacious ways to access Tian, but he thought that the crucial knot was the state of meditation that participants enter prior to engage in the ritual acts. [280], In 2005, the Center for the Study of Confucian Religion was established[279] and guoxue ("national learning") started to be implemented in public schools. Today, the Kaifeng Jewish community is functionally extinct. These activities are typically conducted at the site of ancestral graves or tombs, at an ancestral temple, or at a household shrine. If playback doesn't begin shortly, try restarting your device. The people living in Yunnan where Theravada Buddhism is widespread follow norms similar to those of Thai Buddhists, and their Buddhism is often blended with local folk beliefs. Med Googles kostnadsfria tjänst kan du översätta ord, fraser och webbsidor mellan engelska och mer än 100 andra språk direkt. They combine two aspects: the wénchǎng (文场 "cultural field"), which is a doctrinal aspect characterised by elaborate cosmologies, theologies, and liturgies, and usually taught only to initiates; and the wǔchǎng (武场 "martial field"), that is the practice of bodily cultivation, usually shown as the "public face" of the sect. Hauptvertretung dieses Glaubens ist die Chinesische Buddhistische Gesellschaft, die sich für den Wiederaufbau einiger Tempelanlagen und buddhistischer Klöster einsetzen. [287] In 2009, Zhou Beichen founded another institution which inherits the idea of Kang Youwei's Confucian Church, the Holy Hall of Confucius (孔圣堂 Kǒngshèngtáng) in Shenzhen, affiliated with the Federation of Confucian Culture of Qufu City. [201] In the tradition of New Text Confucianism, Confucius is regarded as a "throne-less king" of the God of Heaven and a savior of the world. [134], Religious self-identification of university students in Beijing (2011)[140], Religious self-identification of participants of the cultural nationalist movement in the mainland (2011)[141], The varieties of Chinese religion are spread across the map of China in different degrees. An additional 0.85% of the population responded that they were "Taoists". |image5=Christianity in China (China Family Panel Studies 2012).png|caption5=Christianity[168] [41] As the Zhou reign collapsed, traditional values were abandoned resulting in a period of moral decline. Advertise on Site [394] As such, China has the most atheists in the world. [207] The shén 神, as explained in the Shuowen Jiezi, "are the spirits of Heaven. [89] The 1928 "Standards for retaining or abolishing gods and shrines" formally abolished all cults of gods with the exception of human heroes such as Yu the Great, Guan Yu and Confucius. [343]:14, The Yao people, who reside in Guangxi and Hunan and surrounding provinces, follow a folk religion that is deeply integrated with Taoism since the 13th century, so much that it is frequently defined as "Yao Taoism". [132] A 2017 study on the Christian community of Wuhan found the same socio-economic characteristics, with the addition that Christians were more likely than the general population to suffer from physical and mental illness. China’s hukou (household registration) system prevents roughly 290 million internal migrants from enjoying full legal status as residents in cities where they work. Mostly Catholicism (0.6%), while nobody declared affiliation with Protestantism (0%). It is centred on the worship of the tngri (gods) and the highest Tenger (Heaven, God of Heaven, God) or Qormusta Tengri. [288][289] It was the first of a nationwide movement of congregations and civil organisations that was unified in 2015 in the Holy Confucian Church (孔圣会 Kǒngshènghuì). [50] Qin Shihuang personally held sacrifices to Di at Mount Tai, a site dedicated to the worship of the supreme God since pre-Xia times, and in the suburbs of the capital Xianyang. [390] In the Tang period it is attested that there were at least twenty-nine Zoroastrian fire temples in northern urban centres. Es una religión politeísta y con ciertos elementos del chamanismo, profundamente influenciada por el budismo, el confucianismo y el taoísmo. Zhang Lu died in 216 or 217, and between 215 and 219 the people of Hanzhong were gradually dispersed northwards, implanting Celestial Masters' Taoism in other parts of the empire. [222] Hans Küng defined Chinese religions as the "religions of wisdom", thereby distinguishing them from the "religions of prophecy" (Judaism, Christianity and Islam) and from the "religions of mysticism" (Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism). [177], This primordial sense of ritual united the moral and the religious and drew no boundaries between family, social, and political life. Google's free service instantly translates words, phrases, and web pages between English and over 100 other languages. Unser Newsticker zum Thema China Religion enthält aktuelle Nachrichten von heute Freitag, dem 26. Through his human side, he was a descendant of 有熊氏 Yǒuxióng, the lineage of the Bear (another reference to the Ursa Major). [294], While the Chinese Taoist Association started as a Quanzhen institution, and remains based at the White Cloud Temple of Beijing, that also functions as the headquarters of the Quanzhen sects, from the 1990s onwards it started to open registration to the sanju daoshi of the Zhengyi branch, who are more numerous than the Quanzhen monks. The universal religion of the Han, which became connected at an early time with the proto-Taoist Huang–Lao movement, was focused on the idea of the incarnation of God as the Yellow Emperor, the central one of the "Five Forms of the Highest Deity" (五方上帝 Wǔfāng Shàngdì). [66], By the end of the dynasty (206 BCE–8 CE) the earliest record of a mass religious movement attests the excitement provoked by the belief in the imminent advent of the Queen Mother of the West (西王母 Xīwángmǔ) in the northeastern provinces (then Henan, Hebei and Shandong) in the first half of the year 3 BCE. So hatte die protestantische Kirche trotz großer Bemühungen der Missionare seit dem 19. [113][114] Furthermore, in the 1990s some of these organisations began to register as branches of the official Taoist Association and therefore to fall under the label of "Taoism". This was also true for royal ancestors of the early Zhou dynasty. [205], In Chinese religion, Tian is both transcendent and immanent,[206] inherent in the multiple phenomena of nature (polytheism or cosmotheism, yǔzhòu shénlùn 宇宙神论). [372] Since the 2010s policies against Christianity have been extended also to Hong Kong. The Tibetans contributed with the translation into Chinese of the Pāṇinisūtra and the Rāmāyaṇa. Since the 1980s there has been an unprecedented development of Mongolian folk religion in Inner Mongolia, including böge, the cult of Genghis Khan and the Heaven in special temples (many of which built in a style resembling yurts),[341] and the cult of aobao as ancestral shrines. Data from the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) 2012. Chr., entstand mit dem Konfuzianismus eine der drei die Kultur Chinas prägenden Lehren. These procedures allowed for prolonged incommunicado detention and increased the risk of torture and other ill-treatment and force… There is no ontological difference between gods and demons, and humans may emulate the gods and join them in the pantheon. [6] Confucian philosophy and religious practice began their long evolution during the later Zhou; Taoist institutionalized religions developed by the Han dynasty; Chinese Buddhism became widely popular by the Tang dynasty, and in response Confucian thinkers developed Neo-Confucian philosophies; and popular movements of salvation and local cults thrived. of negative theology). Further, since humans, shen, and gui are all made of 气 qì (pneuma or primordial stuff), there is no gap or barrier between good and bad spirits or between these spirits and human beings. Various vernacular orders of ritual ministers often identified as "folk Taoists", operate in folk religion but outside the jurisdiction of the state's Taoist Church or schools clearly identified as Taoist. Christianity has been practiced in Hong Kong since 1841. Das Land befindet sich im Übergang vom Agrar- zum Industriestaat. By "folk religion" (民間宗教 mínjiān zōngjiào) or "folk beliefs" (民間信仰 mínjiān xìnyǎng) Chinese scholars have usually meant folk religious organisations and salvationist movements (folk religious sects). [320], Various Chinese non-Han minority populations practise unique indigenous religions. Durch staatliche Geburtenregelung wird eine Steuerung der Bevölkerungszahl angestrebt. Historical sources speak of the religion being introduced in China in 694, though this may have happened much earlier. Popular cults were regulated by imperial policies, promoting certain deities while suppressing others. [297] In some provinces of north China they are known as yīnyángshēng (阴阳生 "sages of yin and yang"),[149]:86[157] and by a variety of other names. Their data are mostly ungrounded or manipulated through undue interpretations, as "survey results do not support the authors' assertions". |image6=Islam in China, with 0.2 (Yang Zongde 2010).png|caption6=Islam[169] You're signed out. Der Konfuzianismus vereint fünf Tugenden: Menschlichkeit, Gerechtigkeit, ethisches Verhalten, Weisheit und Güte. This page was last edited on 29 March 2021, at 20:53. China is also often considered a home to humanism and secularism, this-worldly ideologies beginning in the time of Confucius. Otherwise, the school of the Old Texts regards Confucius as a sage who gave a new interpretation to the tradition from previous great dynasties. China hosted religious meetings and conferences including the first World Buddhist Forum in 2006 and the subsequent World Buddhist Forums, a number of international Taoist meetings and local conferences on folk religions. Because this common religion is embedded in Chinese social relations, it historically has never had an objectifying name. 73.56% of the population does not belong to the state-sanctioned religions. [125], Judaism (犹太教 Yóutàijiào) was introduced during the Tang dynasty (618–907) or earlier, by small groups of Jews settled in China. For this, he was exiled by Emperor Wu of Liang (502–549). [125] Other figures from the micro-level testify the wide proliferation of folk religions: in 1989 there were 21,000 male and female shamans (shen han and wu po respectively, as they are named locally), 60% of them young, in the Pingguo County of Guangxi alone;[248] and by the mid-1990s the government of the Yulin Prefecture of Shaanxi counted over 10,000 folk temples on its territory alone,[249] for a population of 3.1 million, an average of one temple per 315 persons. [391]:149, The first phase of Zoroastrianism in China started in the Wei and Jin dynasties of the Northern and Southern dynasties' period (220–589), when Sogdian Zoroastrians advanced into China. Vor allem der Konfuzianismus, eher Sozialethik als Religion, beeinflusst die moralischen Verhaltensweisen der Chinesen. Die Art und Weise wie in China Religion gelebt und erlebt wird, unterscheidet sich grundlegend von unserer westlichen Religiosität. Dongba followers believe in a celestial shaman called Shi-lo-mi-wu, with little doubt the same as the Tibetan Shenrab Miwo. Reported in, sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFYang2007 (, sfnp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFChau2005 (. When the native Han Chinese Ming dynasty overthrew the Yuan dynasty in the 14th century, Christianity was again expelled from China as a foreign influence. Because many Han Chinese do not consider their spiritual beliefs and practices to be a "religion" and do not feel that they must practice any one of them exclusively, it is difficult to gather clear and reliable statistics. The wall is covered with all the names of the Mongol kins. [329], The spiritual source of Bon is the mythical figure of Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche. Early Taoist movements developed their own institution in contrast to shamanism, but absorbing fundamental shamanic elements. [20], The Zhou dynasty, which overthrew the Shang, was more rooted in an agricultural worldview, and they emphasised a more universal idea of Tian (天 "Heaven"). p. 34 of Wenzel-Teuber (2011): "The CSLS questioned people on popular religious beliefs and practices as well, and came to the following estimates (excluding those who identified themselves with an institutional religion).". [273] Confucians cultivate family bonds and social harmony rather than pursuing a transcendental salvation. Muslims are found in every province of China, but they constitute a majority only in Xinjiang, and a large amount of the population in Ningxia and Qinghai. Gemäß ihrer sozialistischen Verfassung steht die Volksrepublik China „unter der demokratischen Diktatur des Volkes “, wird jedoch von Beginn an durchgehend allein von der Kommunistischen Partei Chinas (KPCh) autoritär bis totalitär regiert. Confucius conceived these qualities as the foundation needed to restore socio-political harmony. Neben der Ahnenverehrung und einigen volkstümlichen alten Religionen der nationalen Minderheiten sind die fünf wichtigsten Religionen Chinas der Buddhismus, der christliche Protestantismus, der Katholizismus, der Taoismus sowie der Islam, wobei nur der Taoismus sich aus der chinesischen Kultur heraus entwickelt hat – alle anderen Religionen stammen aus anderen Weltregionen. }}, Han Chinese culture embodies a concept of religion that differs from the one that is common in the Abrahamic traditions, which are based on the belief in an omnipotent God who exists outside the world and human race and has complete power over them. [225] Mayfair Yang (2007) studied how rituals and temples interweave to form networks of grassroots socio-economic capital for the welfare of local communities, fostering the circulation of wealth and its investment in the "sacred capital" of temples, gods and ancestors. After the fall of the Qing, Sun Yat-sen proclaimed that the country belonged equally to the Han, Manchu, Mongol, Tibetan and Hui peoples. Rituals may be performed by government officials, family elders, popular ritual masters and Taoists, the latter cultivating local gods to centre the forces of the universe upon a particular locality. In such harsh conditions, while the imperial cult continued the sacrifices to the cosmological gods, common people estranged from the rationalism of the state religion found solace in enlightened masters and in reviving and perpetuating more or less abandoned cults of national, regional and local divinities that better represented indigenous identities. [71]:823, Buddhism entered China via the Silk Road, transmitted by the Buddhist populations who inhabited the Western Regions (modern Xinjiang), then Indo-Europeans (predominantly Tocharians and Saka). An error occurred. Most of the world's major religions are practiced by native Chinese people with great devotion. [391]:153, The third phase started in the 18th century when Parsi merchants sailed from Mumbai to Macau, Hong Kong and Guangzhou. Although "spiritual practices" such as the Falun Gong were banned and practitioners have been persecuted since 1999, local authorities were likely to follow a hands-off policy towards other religions. In this context, Christianity not only represents a small proportion of the population, but its adherents are still seen by the majority who observe traditional rituals as followers of a foreign religion that sets them apart from the body of society.
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